Kinetic Modeling of Physicochemical Changes in Protein Bars Fortified with Spirulina and Phycocyanin during Storage

Pourghasemian, Parnian; Pourfarzad, َAmir; Babakhani, Aria

doi:10.22104/ift.2025.7810.2229

Kinetic Modeling of Physicochemical Changes in Protein Bars Fortified with Spirulina and Phycocyanin during Storage

Document Type : Research Article

Authors

¹ Master’s student, Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran.

² Department of Food Technologies, Institute of Chemical Technologies, Iranian Research Organization for Science &amp; Technology (IROST), Azadegan Highway-South, Ahmadabad Mostoufi, Parsa Sq., Enghelab St., Tehran, Iran

³ Associate Professor, Fisheries Department, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Guilan, Sowmeh Sara, Guilan, Iran.

10.22104/ift.2025.7810.2229

Abstract

Introduction: Nutrient bars have emerged as a practical and appealing solution for individuals with busy lifestyles, offering a convenient alternative to missed meals. With optimal formulation, these products can deliver a balanced composition of essential macro- and micronutrients—especially proteins and carbohydrates—necessary for maintaining normal body functions, thereby playing a significant role in improving the nutritional status of consumers. Among the diverse categories of nutritional bars, protein bars constitute a significant segment of the market. However, ensuring their physicochemical and oxidative stability during storage, particularly under ambient conditions, remains a key challenge for the food industry. Recent research has highlighted the potential of microalgae, such as Spirulina, to enhance the technological and nutritional properties of food products. Spirulina is rich in proteins, essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, and various antioxidants, and is widely used as a dietary supplement in diverse nutritional regimens. One of its most important bioactive compounds is phycocyanin, a natural blue protein pigment with potent antioxidant properties. Owing to the nutritional and functional advantages of these compounds, their incorporation into food products has attracted growing interest as a means to enhance both nutritional value and product quality. The present study aims to investigate and model the kinetics of physicochemical and oxidative changes in protein bars enriched with Spirulina and phycocyanin over a 28-day storage period. The parameters examined include moisture content, water activity, titratable acidity, peroxide value, and total color difference (ΔE). Kinetic modeling of physicochemical changes in food systems is a crucial tool for understanding, predicting, and controlling quality behavior during storage. It plays a vital role in shelf life determination, packaging design, optimization of storage conditions, and the overall assessment of product stability.

Graphical Abstract

Highlights

Spirulina, due to its high content of proteins, polysaccharides, and pigments, can enhance the physicochemical stability of protein bars during storage.
The bioactive compounds of phycocyanin and other components present in Spirulina, owing to their antioxidant properties, may influence the oxidative behavior of the product.
These bioactive compounds have increased intermolecular interactions and altered the moisture behavior of the product, leading to an accelerated rate of moisture changes over time.

Keywords

Main Subjects

Food engineering

References

[1] Jabeen, S., Huma, N., Sameen, A., & Zia, M. A. (2020). Formulation and characterization of protein-energy bars prepared by using dates, apricots, cheese and whey protein isolate. Food Sci. Technol., 41, 197–207.

https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.12220

[2] Sithari, J., Chandrasiri, T., & Wijesekara, K. (n.d.). Formulation and characterization of nutrient bars using underutilized seeds: Semolina and jackfruit seeds. Appl. Biosyst. Technol., 1.

[3] Fanari, F., Bonaldo, A., Mandrioli, M., Fontanillas, R., Badiani, A., & Chemat, F. (2023). Enhancing energy bars with microalgae: A study on nutritional, physicochemical and sensory properties. J. Funct. Foods, 109, 105768.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2023.105768

[4] Rajabi, F. (2017). High protein bars based on whey proteins (Master’s thesis, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås).

[5] Jiang, Z., Chen, Y., Zhang, L., Wang, L., Hu, S., & Xu, B. (2021). High-protein nutrition bars: Hardening mechanisms and anti-hardening methods during storage. Food Control, 127, 108127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108127

[6] Soliman, T. N., Ali, R. F. M., Mohamed, G. F., & Abo El-Naga, S. (2023). Effect of applying beetroot juice and functional vegetable oils in the preparation of high protein nutrition bars on its physicochemical, textural and sensorial properties. Egypt. J. Chem., 66(1), 1–14.

https://doi.org/ 10.21608/ejchem.2022.156451.6773

[7] Zhu, H., Zhao, L., Liu, J., Liu, Y., & Li, W. (2023). Anti-hardening effect and mechanism of silkworm sericin peptide in high protein nutrition bars during early storage. Food Chem., 407, 135168.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.135168

[8] Dietrich, R. B., Clarke, K., Smith, J. P., & Thomas, M. (2025). Role of protein and lipid oxidation in hardening of high-protein bars during storage. J. Food Sci., 90(1), e17657. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.17663

[9] Caporgno, M. P., & Mathys, A. (2018). Trends in microalgae incorporation into innovative food products with potential health benefits. Front. Nutr., 5, 58. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2018.00058

[10] Bortolini, D. G., Maciel, G. M., da Silva, R. P. F. F., Brugnari, T., Haminiuk, C. W. I., & Macedo, G. A. (2022). Functional properties of bioactive compounds from Spirulina spp.: Current status and future trends. Food Chem. Mol. Sci., 5, 100134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochms.2022.100134

[11] Maddiboyina, B., Ranjith Kumar, R., Govindaraju, K., & Prasad, S. (2023). Food and drug industry applications of microalgae Spirulina platensis: A review. J. Basic Microbiol., 63(6), 573–583.

https://doi.org/10.1002/jobm.202200704

[12] Grahl, S., Strack, M., Weinrich, R., Mörlein, D., & Busch, C. (2018). Consumer-oriented product development: The conceptualization of novel food products based on Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) and resulting consumer expectations. J. Food Qual., 2018, 1919482. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/1919482

[13] AlFadhly, N. K., Al-Khazaali, M. A., & Al-Juhaishi, H. J. (2022). Trends and technological advancements in the possible food applications of Spirulina and their health benefits: A review. Molecules, 27(17), 5584.

https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27175584

[14] Wang, Y., Zhang, H., Li, L., & Xu, Y. (2023). The nutritional value of Spirulina and utilization research. Life Res., 6(3), 15.

https://doi.org/10.53388/LR20230015

[15] Gentscheva, G., Ivanov, I., & Mihaylova, D. (2023). Application of Arthrospira platensis for medicinal purposes and the food industry: A review of the literature. Life, 13(3), 845. https://doi.org/10.3390/life13030845

[16] de Morais, M. G., Vaz, B. S., de Morais, E. G., & Costa, J. A. V. (2018). Phycocyanin from microalgae: Properties, extraction and purification, with some recent applications. Ind. Biotechnol., 14(1), 30–37.

https://doi.org/10.1089/ind.2017.0009

[17] Athiyappan, K. D., Routray, W., & Paramasivan, B. (2024). Phycocyanin from Spirulina: A comprehensive review on cultivation, extraction, purification, and its application in food and allied industries. Food Human., 100235.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foohum.2024.100235

[18] Mohammadi-Gouraji, E., Soleimanian-Zad, S., & Ghiaci, M. (2019). Phycocyanin-enriched yogurt and its antibacterial and physicochemical properties during 21 days of storage. LWT, 102, 230–236.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2018.12.057

[19] Pourghasemian, P., Pourfarzad, A., & Babakhani, A. (2025). Optimization of a brown rice protein bar supplemented with Spirulina and phycocyanin: FTIR-based analysis of protein secondary structures and multivariate quality assessment. Appl. Food Res., 101259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afres.2025.101259

[20] Sparkman, K., Joyner, H. S., & Smith, B. (2019). Understanding how high-protein bar formulations impact their mechanical and wear behaviors using response surface analysis. J. Food Sci., 84(8), 2209–2221.

https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.14707

[21] Talemi, F. P., Pourfarzad, A., & Gheibi, S. (2025). Synergistic effects of bee pollen and propolis extract on protein bar properties: A multivariate chemometric analysis. Discov. Food, 5(1), 1–29.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s44187-025-00541-0

[22] Lucas, B. F., de Morais, M. G., Santos, T. D., & Costa, J. A. V. (2018). Spirulina for snack enrichment: Nutritional, physical and sensory evaluations. LWT, 90, 270–276.

https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.lwt.2017.12.032

[23] Sabovics, M., Straumite, E., & Galoburda, R. (2014). The influence of baking temperature on the quality of triticale bread. In: Proceedings of the 9th Baltic Conf. Food Sci. Technol. FOODBALT 2014 (pp. 202–206).

[24] Okpala, C. O. R., Bono, G., & Abramo, A. (2016). Lipid oxidation kinetics of ozone-processed shrimp during iced storage using peroxide value measurements. Food Biosci., 16, 5–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2016.07.005

[25] Hematian Sourki, A., Abbasi, S., & Mousavi, S. M. (2013). Optimization of alkaline extraction for dietary fiber of coffee silver skin and its effect on the quality and shelf life of Iranian Barbari bread. Iran. J. Nutr. Sci. Food Technol., 8(1), 11–22.

[26] Jovanov, P., Bjelanović, J., Stupar, A., Vučinić, T., & Savić, G. (2021). High-protein bar as a meal replacement in elite sports nutrition: A pilot study. Foods, 10(11), 2628. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10112628

[27] Pourfarzad, A., & Habibi-Najafi, M. B. (2012). Optimization of a liquid improver for Barbari bread: Staling kinetics and relationship of texture with dough rheology and image characteristics. J. Texture Stud., 43(6), 484–493.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4603.2012.00362.x

[28] Lucas, B. F., de Morais, M. G., Santos, T. D., & Costa, J. A. V. (2019). Snack bars enriched with Spirulina for schoolchildren nutrition. Food Sci. Technol., 40, 146–152. https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.06719

[29] Ashaolu, T. J., Zhao, G., & Li, X. (2021). Phycocyanin, a super functional ingredient from algae: Properties, purification, characterization, and applications. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 193, 2320–2331.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.11.064

[30] Bayram, I., & Decker, E. A. (2023). Underlying mechanisms of synergistic antioxidant interactions during lipid oxidation. Trends Food Sci. Technol., 133, 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2023.02.003

[31] Tańska, M., Konopka, I., & Ruszkowska, M. (2017). Sensory, physico-chemical and water sorption properties of corn extrudates enriched with Spirulina. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr., 72, 250–257.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-017-0628-z

[32] Al-Baarri, A. N. M., Ando, Y., Kitamura, Y., Sasaki, M., & Ohta, H. (2023). Accelerated shelf life determination of corn snack bars. Ital. J. Food Saf., 12(4), 10718. https://doi.org/10.4081/ijfs.2023.10718

[33] Marcinkowska-Lesiak, M., Onopiuk, A., Stelmasiak, A., Szmaja, A., & Poltorak, A. (2018). The effect of different level of Spirulina powder on the chosen quality parameters of shortbread biscuits. J. Food Process. Preserv., 42(3), e13561.

https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.13561

[34] Hussain, S. Z., Rani, S., Nazir, S., & Rafiq, S. (2019). Development of low glycemic index muffins using water chestnut and barley flour. J. Food Process. Preserv., 43(8), e14049. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14049

[35] Srisuk, N., & Jirasatid, S. (2023). Development of instant pumpkin-fingerroot drink powder and its shelf life modeling. Life Sci. Environ. J., 24(1), 161–182. https://doi.org/10.14456/lsej.2023.14

[36] Tireki, S., Sumnu, G., & Sahin, S. (2023). Investigation of average crosslink distance and physicochemical properties of gummy candy during storage: Effect of formulation and storage temperature. Phys. Fluids, 35(5), 057111.

https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0146761

[37] Yang, S., Wang, J., Liu, C., Zhang, J., & Chen, Y. (2021). Evaluation of cooking performance, structural properties, storage stability and shelf life prediction of high-moisture wet starch noodles. Food Chem., 357, 129744.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129744

[38] Manzocco, L., Calligaris, S., Panozzo, A., & Nicoli, M. C. (2020). Modeling the effect of the oxidation status of the ingredient oil on stability and shelf life of low-moisture bakery products: The case study of crackers. Foods, 9(6), 749.

https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9060749

[39] Monji, Z. B., Babakhani, A., Pourfarzad, A., & Farhoosh, R. (2025). Effect of phycocyanin and butylated hydroxytoluene on the oxidative stability of safflower oil: A comprehensive kinetic investigation. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol., 127(1), e202400010. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.202400010

[40] Chikpah, S. K., Essilfie, G., & Nyarko, A. (2022). Colour change kinetics of pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) slices during convective air drying and bioactive compounds of the dried products. J. Agric. Food Res., 10, 100409.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2022.100409

[41] Zhang, W., Guo, L., Liu, Y., & Wang, X. (2021). Kinetic models applied to quality change and shelf life prediction of kiwifruits. LWT, 138, 110610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110610